True, Historically Accurate Position

The Establishment Clause Revived

The "Establishment Clause" of  the US Constitution represents the first amendment made to the US Constitution.  Wikipedia provides a summary of its intent and meaning:

In United States law, the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, together with that Amendment's Free Exercise Clause, form the constitutional right of freedom of religion. The relevant constitutional text is: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...".

The Establishment Clause was based on a number of precedents, including the Constitutions of Clarendon, the Bill of Rights 1689, and the Pennsylvania and New Jersey colonial constitutions. An initial draft by John Dickinson was prepared in conjunction with his drafting the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, then-congressman James Madison prepared another draft which, following discussion and debate in the First Congress, would become part of the text of the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights. The second half of the Establishment Clause includes the Free Exercise Clause, which allows individual citizens freedom from governmental interference in both private and public religious affairs.

The Establishment Clause is a limitation placed upon the United States Congress preventing it from passing legislation forcing an establishment of religion. The second half of the Establishment Clause inherently prohibits the government from preventing the free exercise of religion. While the Establishment Clause does prohibit Congress from preferring or elevating one religion over another, it does not prohibit the government's entry into the religious domain to make accommodations for religious observances and practices in order to achieve the purposes of the Free Exercise Clause. Furthermore, it does not prevent the placement of religious symbols on government premises.

The whole idea of the Establishment Clause is that there shall be no established religion in the United States--that is, a religion established by the Congress or the Executive Branch of government. 

In recent decades non-establishment has come to mean that the State is required to be functionally atheistic.

Free Speech . . . Or Not?

Most College Students Say Campus Climate Prevents Them from Expressing Views

Alana Mastrangelo
Breitbart News

A recent study found that most college students say that the political and social climate on their college campuses prevents students from expressing their true beliefs. The study reveals that more than two-thirds of college students admitted that campus culture causes students to self-censor over the concern that their classmates could find their views “offensive.”

“College students largely agree that the political and social climate on college campuses prevents some students from saying what they really believe because they’re afraid of offending their classmates,” says a recent study conducted by the Knight Foundation and College Pulse.

The study found that 68 percent of American college students say “the climate on my campus prevents some people from saying things they believe because others might find them offensive,” while roughly 31 percent disagree. The study also notes that students in agreement with this statement have “increased modestly over the last 12 months.”

Daily Meditation

Surveying the Crisis of Worship

Ligonier Ministries

There is a crisis of worship in our land. People are staying away from church in droves. One survey indicated that the two chief reasons people drop out of church are that it is boring and irrelevant.

If people find worship boring and irrelevant, it can only mean they have no sense of the presence of God in it. When we study the act of worship in Scripture and church history, we discover a variety of human responses to the sense of the presence of God. Some people tremble in terror, falling with their faces to the ground; others weep in mourning; some are exuberant in joy; still others are reduced to a pensive silence. Though the responses differ, one reaction we never find is boredom. It is impossible to be bored in the presence of God (if you know that He is there).

Neither is it possible for a sentient creature to find his or her encounter with God a matter of irrelevance. Nothing—and no one—is more relevant to human existence than the living God.

Coram Deo

Do you find worship boring and irrelevant? If so, pray for a renewed sense of God’s presence.

Passages for Further Study

Psalm 95:6
Psalm 34:1
Psalm 50:23

Real Politick Outside of London

Interesting Days

OK.  So it seems to be shaping up that Boris Johnson will become the leader of the Conservative Party in the UK.  Love him or loathe him, thems will be the apples and the pears.  So, then, Brexit awaits.  Or it should, unless Johnson is a wolf in sheep's clothing.

But what is not clear (yet) is where the UK Labour Party will stand on the issue.  After all, the majority in the Commons will struggle to be held together by a Boris Johnson led Conservative Party.  Where will Johnson's allies come from?  How will the Labour Party vote? 

Here is an interesting indicator: 

’We Must Leave’: Pro-Brexit Labour Warns Corbyn 2nd Referendum Would Be ‘Toxic’

Twenty-six Labour MPs in marginal and Brexit-supporting constituencies have written to party leader Jeremy Corbyn urging him to strike a deal with the next prime minister to secure Brexit by October 31st, warning that pushing for a second referendum would be “toxic to our bedrock” of supporters.

The letter was sent on Wednesday, reported by Guido Fawkes, as a meeting of the Shadow Cabinet failed to agree on explicitly backing Remain as official Labour Party position, with Mr Corbyn saying however that it is “now right to demand that any deal is put to a public vote”, or second referendum. Other colleagues urged the leftist to support a second referendum now, with the party campaigning on a platform for Remain.

The signatories of the letter urged the Labour Party to stand by its pledge to honour the 2016 referendum and warned that “a commitment to a second referendum would be toxic to our bedrock Labour voters, driving a wedge between them and our Party, jeopardising our role as a party of the whole nation.” The MPs added that the “populist right” and Brexit Party in particular represent a “potent threat” to Corbyn’s party in the traditionally working-class, pro-Brexit, but Labour-supporting heartlands. [Emphasis, ours]

“The Peterborough by-election result, with Labour’s vote share down 17%, and the Brexit Party coming so close, gives a stark warning of what could happen in Tory-Labour marginals, the majority of which are Leave seats,” the letter continued, adding that Peterborough canvassers were briefed “to assure voters that Brexit will not be stopped”.  [Breitbart News]

So, when all is said and done, it appears as though the "people" in electorates outside of London want Brexit--so much so, that the Labour Party fears electoral oblivion if it is seen to be supporting yet another referendum on the issue.  The electorate has "been there, and done that".  Any fiddling around with second referendums risks Labour entering the electoral void, with its supporters turning instead to the Brexit Party at the next general election. 

Johnson, if he were smart, could achieve a Grand Coalition:  Conservative rump, plus Labour rump, together with the Brexit Party. 

This Emperor Has Worn Out His Ragged Clothes

Alarmist Claims on Extinction Can Lead to Apathy


Bob Brockie
Stuff


A new United Nations report on biodiversity, released in May, claims that a million of the world's species are at imminent risk of extinction, while 4000 native plant and animal species also face extinction in New Zealand, according to another recent report.

These claims give the impression that droves of plants and animals are going extinct, but things are not as alarming as these reports assert.   Very few animals have disappeared from the world's continents in recent years.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) keeps a close eye on extinctions and lists very few animals going extinct on the continents.  Since 2000, the Union lists only the Western black rhino, a Japanese otter, the Yangtze River dolphin, five species of Australian marsupial rodents, and some African grasshoppers.

More island species have gone extinct over the list 18 years, comprising the Formosan leopard, a Christmas Island bat, the Pinta Island tortoise, a Uruguayan island lizard, a Madagascan grebe, a Bermuda owl, the Norfolk Island silvereye, a Costa Rican toad, an Australian island marsupial rat, a giant stick insect from Singapore, and a Madeira island butterfly

Extinction doomsayers have always attracted headlines.

Daily Meditation

Examining Calvin’s Rules of Prayer (Part 2)

Ligonier Ministries

John Calvin’s third rule of prayer was that we must always pray with genuine feeling. Prayer is a matter of passion: “Many repeat prayers in a perfunctory manner from a set form, as if they were performing a task to God … They perform the duty from custom, because their minds are meanwhile cold, and they ponder not what they ask.”

A fourth rule of prayer from Calvin was that it be always accompanied by repentance: “God does not listen to the wicked; that their prayers, as well as their sacrifices, are an abomination to them. For it is right that those who seal up their hearts should find the ears of God closed against them.”

Calvin said a humble submission is required: “Of this submission, which casts down all haughtiness, we have numerous examples in the servants of God. The holier they are, the more humbly they prostrate themselves when they come into the presence of the Lord.”

If I can summarize Calvin’s teaching on prayer succinctly, I would say this: The chief rule of prayer is to remember who God is and to remember who you are. If we remember those two things, our prayers will always and ever be marked by adoration and confession.

Coram Deo

Do you pray with genuine feeling? Do you always accompany your prayers with repentance?

Passages for Further Study

Philippians 4:6
James 5:16
1 Peter 4:7

New Zealand's Dark, Dark Present.

The Other Side of the "Oranga Tamariki Baby Uplift Story"

We remember well the terrible story of Nia Glassie.     You can read a summary here.  The point is that a defenceless child was murdered because the family responsible for her death were themselves dead in a prison of narcotic abuse.  But within parts of  Maoridom in New Zealand, family or whanau outweigh all other considerations when it comes to child rearing and raising. 

Whilst the country was sickened and outraged by what happened to little, defenceless Nia Glassie it has learned little, if not anything at all.  We are back right where we started as it were.  Certain Maori are claiming their "whanau rights" trump all.  But when a household or an extended family is in the grip of domestic violence, drugs, and alcohol whanau rights are shot to pieces in practice and reality.  Bleating on about them as a last resort to preserve some vestige of human dignity has long ago fled the coup.

A family lawyer has published her view of the matter.

You've probably seen it – the video of the young Hawke's Bay mother with the week-old baby that (the child welfare agency) Oranga Tamariki is attempting to uplift. I watched it, but my reaction was likely different to yours.  It's hard watching, but it didn't leave me wondering how Oranga Tamariki could be so cruel, or how the social worker could have made such an error of judgment, or why the family wasn't given a chance to try, or how our legal system could allow such an injustice to happen.

I didn't wonder, because I'm a family lawyer.

The Act Party Hangs It Hat on Freedom of Speech

Not a Bad Place to Stand

The "intolerant new left" is working in the background of the Government to censor New Zealanders' thoughts and speech, Act Party leader David Seymour says.  Act unveiled a new logo with the tagline "for freedom" at its annual conference in Auckland's Parnell today, with speakers highlighting free speech policy and opposition to gun laws passed after the Christchurch shootings.

The Act party unveiled a new logo with the tagline "for freedom" at its annual conference in Auckland's Parnell today.  "None of us, nor our ancestors, came here to have our thoughts and speech censored by a state apparatus," Seymour said in his keynote speech.  "In fact, many New Zealanders have come here to get away from exactly that. But make no mistake that is exactly what the intolerant new left wants, and they are working in the background of the current Government.

"For a long time, we could rely on the liberal left to uphold freedom of expression. They may have wanted to take your property, but at least they'd let you have your thoughts and opinions."

Seymour has faced accusations he is seeking the "racist vote" after announcing a member's bill that would repeal parts of the law that makes some speech unlawful if it is threatening, abusive or insulting and likely to "excite hostility" against a group of people or bring them into contempt on the ground of their colour, race or ethnicity.  Today, Seymour said the bill would remove from the Human Rights Act the words "abusive" and "insulting" and leave only "threatening" as a crime.

"It should never be a crime to insult or abuse someone with language because nobody should ever be punished on the basis of subjective opinion."  [NZ Herald]

Daily Meditation

Examining Calvin’s Rules of Prayer (Part 1)

Ligonier Ministries

For John Calvin, prayer was like a priceless treasure that God has offered to His people.

Calvin’s first rule of prayer was to enter into it with a full awareness of the One to whom we are speaking. The key to prayer is a spirit of reverence and adoration: “Let the first rule of right prayer be, to have our heart and mind framed as becomes those who are entering into converse with God.”

Calvin wrote of how easy it is for our minds to wander in prayer. We become inattentive, as if we were speaking to someone with whom we are easily bored. This insults the glory of God: “Let us know, then, that none duly prepare themselves [sic] for prayer but those who are so impressed with the majesty of God that they engage in it free from all earthly cares and affections.”

Calvin’s second rule of prayer was that we ask only for those things that God permits. Prayer can be an exercise in blasphemy if we entreat His blessing for our sinful desires: “I lately observed, men in prayer give greater license to their unlawful desires than if they were telling jocular tales among their equals.”

Coram Deo

How does your personal prayer life line up with these two rules? Is your heart and mind framed as becomes those who are entering into conversation with God? Do you ask only for those things God permits?

Passages for Further Study

Psalm 109:4
1 Corinthians 7:5
Ephesians 6:18

Me and Julio Down By the School Yard

The Differences Between Left and Right Are Cosmetic

Historian Richard Overy argues in his monumental comparison of Stalin and Hitler that between these two men and their respective regimes there was far more held in common than difference.  Hitler, of course, represented the Right.  Stalin was one of the most extreme Leftists of all times.  It turned out that in practice they were kissing cousins.  Their ideological differences amounted to little more than superficial, minor variants. 

This should mean that we treat ideological differences with a great deal of scepticism.  In the end, the ideologues of Left and Right shared a common ambition: power--absolute power--over their subjects. 

This reality is often not well understood.  Dorian Lynskey has written a biography of Orwell, entitled The Ministry of Truth: The Biography of George Orwell's 1984.  It has been reviewed by George Packer in an essay published in The Atlantic.  The review is entitled Doublethink is Stronger Than Orwell Imagined: What 1984 Means Today. 

After reviewing the cultural impact of 1984 over the last forty years or so, reviewer Packer asks:

What does the novel mean for us? Not Room 101 in the Ministry of Love, where Winston is interrogated and tortured until he loses everything he holds dear. We don’t live under anything like a totalitarian system. “By definition, a country in which you are free to read Nineteen Eighty-Four is not the country described in Nineteen Eighty-Four,” Lynskey acknowledges. Instead, we pass our days under the nonstop surveillance of a telescreen that we bought at the Apple Store, carry with us everywhere, and tell everything to, without any coercion by the state. The Ministry of Truth is Facebook, Google, and cable news. We have met Big Brother and he is us.

Daily Meditation

Receiving Joy and Strength

Ligonier Ministries

There is still another vital aspect to the “why” of Jesus’ departure. He said, “If I do not go away, the Helper (Paraclete) will not come to you; but if I depart, I will send Him to you.” Jesus’ departure was tied to Pentecost. There is no Pentecost without ascension. As the invested King of kings, Jesus had the authority together with the Father to send His Holy Spirit in a new and powerful way upon the church. Jesus spoke of a certain necessity of His leaving in order for the Spirit to come. Herein was another great advantage. He declared, “Ye shall receive power, after that the Holy Ghost has come upon you” (Acts 1:8, KJV).

Two remarkable things happened to the disciples after Jesus departed. The first is that they “returned to Jerusalem with great joy” (Luke 24:52). They were not despondent over the departure of Jesus. Obviously they finally understood why He was leaving. They understood what, for the most part, the church since then has failed to understand. We live as if it would not have been better for Jesus to leave.

The second obvious change in the lives of the disciples was in their spiritual strength. After Pentecost, they were different people. No longer did they flee like sheep without a shepherd. Instead, they turned the world upside down. They turned the world upside down because they fully understood two simple things: the “where” and the “why” of Jesus’ departure. 

Coram Deo

Great joy and spiritual strength are two of the benefits of the ministry of the Holy Spirit. Let Him release these benefits in your life today.

Passages for Further Study

Acts 4:31
Acts 4:33
Acts 4:29

No Anti-Semitism in Sight

To the Jew First, Then Also to the Greek

Amongst the Founders of the US Republic, the Jewish people were held in very high regard and respect in general.  This position was consistent with the extremely high respect maintained for God Himself. 

John Adams serves as a prime example:

Adams held the Jewish people and their religion in the highest esteem.  Such an appreciation for Judaism--and the contribution of Jews to the making of a better world--is most evident in his private letters sent to close friends.  In the whole of his political writings, Adams drew heavily on Greek and Roman political experience but did not ignore the patrimony of the Hebrews.   He wrote in 1809:

"I will insist that the Hebrews have done more to civilize men than any other nation.  If I were an atheist, and believed in blind eternal fate, I should still believe that fate had ordained the Jews to be the most essential instrument for civilizing the nations.  If I were an atheists of the other sect, who believe or pretend to believe that all is ordered by chance, I should believe that chance had ordered the Jews to preserve and propagate to all mankind the doctrine of a supreme, intelligent, wise, almighty sovereign of the universe, which I believe to be the great essential principle of all morality, and consequently of all civilization."

  . . . . In a missive dated December 31, 1808, he confessed being appalled by Voltaire's derogatory comments about the Hebrew Bible and the Jewish people.  Adams commented:

"How is it possible this old Fellow [Voltaire} should represent the Hebrews in such contemptible light?  They are the most glorious Nation that ever inhabited this Earth.  The Romans and their Empire were but a Bauble in comparison of [sic] the Jews.  They have given Religion to the quarters of the globe and have influenced the affairs of mankind more, and more happily, than any other Nation ancient or modern."

[Augusto Zimmermann, Christian Foundations of the Common Law: Volume 2: The United States (Brisbane: Connor Court Publishing, 2018), p. 100f.]

A World Prepared For Christ's Coming

Shadows of the Trinity

Andrew Moody
The Gospel Coalition--Australia


How did an essentially Jewish sect following a crucified Messiah start worshipping him as God? Here, in time for Trinity Sunday, are five ways in which God prepared the way for the arrival of his Son through revelation and providence.


1. Agents and Representatives of God.
Right from the start, we see that the God of the Bible is committed to working in the world through agents and representatives. For example:

He makes humans in his image to rule the world as his stewards (Gen 1:26-28), thus associating them with himself and making an attack on them an attack on him:

Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed, for God made man in his own image. (see Gen 9:6; see too James 3:9-10)

He sends prophets who speak for him and – even model his relationship to the world:
Then the Lord said to Moses, “See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet. (Ex 7:1)

He makes the heirs of King David to be his “sons” to rule on his behalf (with very similar connotations to the idea of “image”). Sometimes the language applied to these kings can become over the top![1]

Your throne, O God, is forever and ever. The scepter of your kingdom is a scepter of uprightness; you have loved righteousness and hated wickedness. Therefore God, your God, has anointed you with the oil of gladness beyond your companions (Ps 45:6-7)

He rules the cosmos through other “sons of God”—angelic deputies who serve as his ministers (Job 1:6; 2:1). It may be to these (or possibly human rulers) that Jesus refers to when he defends his own much greater claims:

Jesus answered them, “Is it not written in your Law, ‘I said, you are gods’? If he called them gods to whom the word of God came—and Scripture cannot be broken—do you say of him whom the Father consecrated and sent into the world, ‘You are blaspheming,’ because I said, ‘I am the Son of God’? (John 10:34-36 c.f. Ps 82)

While none of these figures is depicted as divine, or equal with God, their function means that they must be, at least to some degree, obeyed or heeded as God when they speak and rule on his behalf. This prepares the way for Jesus, the true man, image, prophet, king etc who represents God in every way.

Daily Meditation

Understanding Christ’s New Role

Ligonier Ministries

Imagine an earthly situation where the heir-apparent to the throne meets with his closest friends on the eve of his own coronation. The new king’s friends would hardly desire that the king skip his own coronation. There is no greater benefit to the new king’s friends than that he ascends to the throne.

When Jesus left this world, He was not departing in exile. He was leaving for His coronation. He was passing from humiliation to exaltation. The extraordinary benefit in this for every Christian is that he can live in the full assurance that at this very moment the highest political office in the universe is being held by King Jesus. His term of office is forever. No revolution, no rebellion, no bloody coup can wrest Him from the throne. The Lord Christ omnipotent reigns.

The “where” partially explains the “why.” There is more to be added, though. The king serves in a dual capacity. He is not an ordinary monarch. At the same time He reigns as King, He serves His subjects as their Great High Priest. The King kneels before His own throne in supplication for His people. In addition to the session there is also intercession. Jesus’ throne is linked to the heavenly Holy of Holies. Daily, He makes intercession for you. 

Coram Deo

Think on this glorious truth: In His new position, Jesus faithfully intercedes for you at the right hand of the Father.

Passages for Further Study

Luke 24:50–52

A Noble Condemnation

U.S. Senate Unanimously Condemns Anti-Semitism

House of Representatives Takes a Pass

Melissa Langsam Braunstein
The Federalist

When you write about anti-Semitism, there’s typically not much good news to report; the world’s oldest hatred has been making a comeback not only overseas, but also here in the US of A. So, it’s both good and important to pause and celebrate the U.S. Senate unanimously passing a resolution that unequivocally condemns anti-Semitism.

Where the House of Representatives fumbled, the Senate succeeded. And thank G-d for that.

In March, the House struggled to rebuke blatantly anti-Semitic remarks from freshman Rep. Ilhan Omar. Rather than forcefully denounce anti-Semitism within their own ranks, House members passed a watered-down resolution calling out all hatred. While that message was unobjectionable, it was also totally non-responsive to the historical moment.

By contrast, Sens. Ted Cruz and Tim Kaine led the Senate in embracing a resolution yesterday that squarely condemns anti-Semitism in all of its forms. The Senate resolution offers a sweeping historical view of anti-Semitism across borders and millennia. It recognizes that the virus of anti-Semitism is different than other forms of hatred, has occurred both overseas and domestically, and that it requires a unique, targeted condemnation.

In addition to citing pogroms, forced conversions, and the Holocaust, the resolution mentions that Jews retain the dubious honor of being the most targeted religious group for hate crimes.

Public Acknowledgement

An Eagle Eye and Mountain Experience Were The Keys

Piers Fuller
Stuff

[Jason Diedrichs knows the Tararua Ranges like the back of his hand.  Many owe him their lives.  Unfortunately, this past week this was not to be the case.  But a family was released from the curse of never knowing what happened to a loved on in one of New Zealand's most hauntingly beautiful, yet dangerous national parks.  JD and his colleagues are especially public spirited souls and exceptionally knowledgeable and skilled at what they do.]



Jason Diedrichs ("JD") of Amalgamated Helicopters was the one who first spotted Myers' body.
Piers Fuller, Stuff

A fleeting glimpse of colour that caught a helicopter pilot's eye meant a long, agonising wait for family was almost over.

In many ways the conditions could not have been worse during the 11 days the search was on to find missing tramper Darren Myers in Tararua Range.  His body was found at the bottom of a 6 metre waterfall in Arete Stream on Wednesday in an isolated area almost impenetrable by foot .



Darren Myers' wife Kim Shaw, centre, supported by her sister and brother-in-law Debbie and Duncan Styles,were at search headquarters almost every day since the search began on Sunday, June 2.
Thousands of man hours went into the search but in the end it was the experience and nous of seasoned helicopter pilots which brought the break everyone was hoping for.

Jason Diedrichs of Amalgamated Helicopters and his co-pilot Jamie Hansen had been tasked by planners to do another sweep of the area because of clues that had been discovered in the area last weekend.    The body of Wellington man Darren Myers was found by search teams on Wednesday.
"It was colour that stuck out.  It just looked a little out of place," Diedrichs said when he saw something tucked away at the bottom of one of the many waterfalls

He said it was a sense of excitement and relief when they realised they had likely found what they had been looking for.  "In this particular search it was just relief because it had gone on for so long. I knew the huge commitment that everyone had put in to try and find Darren."  It was only a break in the weather on Wednesday morning that made it possible.  We follow the tasking and use a little bit of initiative along the way and the skills that we may have from working in the mountains all the time."

Daily Meditation

Accepting Our Helper

Ligonier Ministries

It was 3 a.m., Amsterdam, 1965. I couldn’t sleep. I was pacing the floor of our apartment like a caged lion. My body was more than ready for sleep, but my mind refused to shut down.

I had spent that day studying the doctrine of the ascension of Christ, the climactic moment of His departure from this world. One statement of Jesus gripped my mind in a vise. The statement was part of Jesus’ farewell discourse to His disciples in the upper room. He said: “Nevertheless I tell you the truth. It is to your advantage that I go away; for if I do not go away, the Helper will not come to you; but if I depart, I will send Him to you” (John 16:7).

I paced the floor mulling over this astonishing statement. How could it possibly be better for the church to experience an absentee Lord? Parting with loved ones is not a “sweet sorrow.” One would think that to part with the incarnate Jesus would be an utterly bitter sorrow, a total dissolution to the soul.

Yet Jesus spoke of a certain “expediency” of His departure. The word translated “advantage” or “expedient” in John 16 is the word sumpherei, the same word employed by Caiaphas in his ironic prophecy (John 18:14).

The advantage of Jesus’ departure from earth is found partially in answer to Peter’s earlier question: “Lord, where are you going?” (Quo vadis?). We might say that the entire farewell discourse of John 14 was given in answer to that question. But equally important is that Jesus answered Peter by telling him not only where He was going but why He was going.

When Jesus left this world, He went to the Father. His ascension was to a certain place for a particular reason. To ascend did not mean merely “to go up.” He was being elevated to the right hand of the Father. The seat He occupies since His departure is the royal throne of cosmic authority. It is the office of the King of kings and the Lord of lords.

Coram Deo

Rejoice in this fact: The Holy Spirit, the Helper promised by Jesus, stands ready to assist you today.

Passages for Further Study

John 18:14
John 16:7–8